Christianity vs Islam

Christians teach that ultimate reality is one God who exists eternally as three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.¹ This teaching is called the Trinity.¹² We do not confess three Gods, but one God in three persons,¹ the Catholic Catechism says of the Trinity. Christians also hold that the Son became human as Jesus, which they call the Incarnation.³⁴⁵

The branches part on one phrase in the Nicene Creed, an early statement of faith. The Eastern Orthodox text says the Spirit proceeds from the Father, while Catholic teaching and the Westminster Confession, a Reformed Protestant statement, add "and the Son," in Latin filioque.⁶¹² The Catholic Catechism holds that the two wordings can complement each other, though it calls the addition a point of disagreement with the Orthodox.¹ An Orthodox Church in America teaching series holds the addition unacceptable.⁷

Muslims teach that ultimate reality is one God, unique and undivided, the creator of all things.⁸ The scholar Vincent Cornell defines this oneness, tawhid, as God being one, unique, and not divisible into persons or incarnations, with no son.⁸ Allah is the Arabic word for God.⁸ Chapter 112 of the Quran says that God neither begets nor is begotten, and that nothing is comparable to him.⁹

The theological schools agree that God is one but differ on some points. Twelvers, the largest Shia group, stress God's justice as part of his very nature, Seyyed Hossein Nasr writes.¹⁰ Ash'ari theologians, of a major Sunni school, hold that the Quran is God's uncreated speech.¹¹ The Mu'tazila, a school that stressed reason and God's justice, taught that it was created.¹² So do the Ibadis, a small branch found mainly in Oman and parts of Africa.¹³¹⁴

Christians hold that Jesus was born to Mary in Bethlehem, grew up in Nazareth in Galilee, and preached that the kingdom of God was near.¹⁵ They hold that he was crucified in Jerusalem under Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, and rose from the dead on the third day.¹⁵⁵ They hold that at Pentecost the Holy Spirit came upon his followers, and the church grew from that moment.¹⁵

Historians such as Dale Martin of Yale University hold that Jesus of Nazareth existed.¹⁶ The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that Christus was executed by Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius.¹⁷ A chronology made for the PBS series From Jesus to Christ places his death around 30 CE and dates the Gospels to about 70 to 110 CE.¹⁸¹⁹ Historians describe his followers as a movement within Judaism that settled in Jerusalem.²⁰¹⁸

Muslim tradition holds that islam, surrender to God, was the faith of every prophet from Adam on, and that Muhammad brought its final form.²¹²² It holds that he was born in Mecca around 570 CE.²³ A Sunni hadith collected by al-Bukhari tells that an angel came to him in the cave of Hira and commanded him to read.²⁴ The tradition dates that event to 610 CE, his migration to Medina to 622 CE, and his death to 632 CE.²³

Historians such as Patricia Crone accept that Muhammad lived: a Greek text written between 632 and 634 mentions a man it calls a false prophet among the Arabs.²⁵ She notes that the Muslim biographies begin only around 750 to 800 CE and that few specialists read them as straightforward history.²⁵ She thinks it likely that most of what the tradition tells is more or less correct in some sense.²⁵

Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches share the same 27 New Testament books, but Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments include books that most Protestant churches do not count as scripture.^26272829 Christians hold that God inspired the Bible's human writers; Catholic and Orthodox teaching adds that they were true authors in their own right.³⁰²⁷²⁸ Church tradition ascribes the four Gospels to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.²⁷³¹ Catholic and Orthodox teaching sets the Bible within church tradition; Lutheran and Reformed confessions make scripture the final authority.^30323328

Dale Martin explains that many modern scholars regard the Gospels as anonymous and that Paul's letters, the first written around 50 CE, are the oldest New Testament writings.¹⁹ The earliest surviving list matching the 27 books comes from a letter of 367 CE.³⁴¹⁹

Muslims hold that the Quran, 114 chapters in Arabic, is God's own words, revealed to Muhammad over twenty-three years.³⁵ The standard Muslim view, Sunni and Shia alike, attributes its composition to God alone.³⁶ The Hadith, reports of what Muhammad said and did, are a separate second source.³⁷ Sunnis rely on six standard collections.³⁷ Twelver Shia rely on four of their own, led by al-Kafi, with reports from the imams as well as Muhammad.³⁷ Ibadis give the Hadith less weight in law.¹⁴

Historians disagree on when the Quran's text was fixed. Stephen Shoemaker argues for the reign of the caliph Abd al-Malik (685 to 705 CE).³⁸ Nicolai Sinai holds that the traditional date, 650 CE or earlier, should remain the default view unless distinctive late passages can be shown.³⁹

Christians teach that God created people in his image and in friendship with him.⁴⁰⁴¹ Sin has broken that friendship, and its effects reach every person and the world itself.⁴⁰⁴¹ Catholic, Orthodox, and Reformed teaching all read the story of Adam and Eve in Genesis as the account of the first sin, which Christians call the Fall.⁴¹⁴⁰²

The branches describe the results differently. Catholic teaching holds that every person is born with original sin, a state inherited rather than an act committed, which leaves human nature wounded but not totally corrupted.⁴¹ Lutheran teaching holds that people are born with sin, that is, without fear of God or trust in him.⁴ The Reformed Westminster Confession describes human nature as wholly inclined to evil.² An Orthodox Church in America answer holds that everyone bears the consequences of the first sin, above all death, but only Adam and Eve are guilty of it.⁴²

Muslims teach that people are born with the fitra, an inborn nature turned toward God, and go wrong by forgetting God and turning from his guidance, not by inheriting a fallen nature.^43444546 A Sunni hadith says every child is born on the fitra; a Shia report in al-Kafi places belief in God's oneness in people's nature.⁴³⁴⁴ In the Quran, Adam forgot God's covenant, then he and his wife confessed that they had wronged themselves, and God relented toward him.⁹ The scholar Marilyn Robinson Waldman writes that his expulsion produced no original sin to be redeemed; each person earns his or her own fate.⁴⁵ The Quran also says that no one bears another's load.⁹

The theological schools differ on how far human acts are free, though all hold people responsible.⁴⁷ Ash'ari theologians hold that God creates each act and the person acquires it; Mu'tazili thinkers held that God gives people the power to choose before they act.⁴⁷

Christians teach that salvation comes from God through Jesus, whose death and resurrection reconcile people to God and defeat death.⁴⁸⁴⁹⁴ The branches differ on how a person receives it. Catholic teaching holds that justification, being made right with God, is conferred in baptism and establishes cooperation between God's grace and human freedom.⁴⁹ Lutheran teaching holds that people are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, and not by their own works.⁴ Orthodox teaching holds that theosis, becoming by grace what God is by nature, is a gift that people must prepare to receive.⁵⁰⁵¹

Muslims teach that God sends guidance through prophets and revealed books, and that he forgives sins.²¹⁹ A chain of prophets from Adam through Abraham, Moses, and Jesus to Muhammad brought one message of surrender to God.²¹ The Quran calls Muhammad the seal of the prophets, which Muslims understand to mean that prophecy ended with him.²¹ A person responds with faith and good works.⁹ In Muslim teaching, Muhammad's example, the sunnah, explains the Quran.³⁷ Twelver Shia Muslims add the imams, twelve descendants of Muhammad whom they hold God inspired to interpret revealed truth without altering it.²¹¹⁰

Christians teach that every person will face God's judgment, and that at the end of time the dead will rise in body to everlasting life or condemnation.⁴²⁵² The Nicene Creed ends with that hope: the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come.⁶ The branches differ on what comes between. Catholic teaching holds that each soul is judged at death and either enters heaven, at once or after purification, or is condemned.⁵²⁵³ The Westminster Confession holds that souls go only to heaven or to hell.² On the final state, an Orthodox Church in America teaching series holds that God will be all in all, and that his presence will be paradise for those who love God and hell for those who hate him.⁵⁴

Muslims teach that every person will be raised, body and soul, on the Day of Judgment, judged by their deeds, and sent to the Garden (paradise) or the Fire (hell).⁴⁵ Sunni teaching, drawing on the Hadith, describes a time of waiting called barzakh between death and resurrection.⁴⁵ The Sunni creed of al-Tahawi adds that two angels question the dead in their graves.⁵⁵ The branches part on two questions. Al-Tahawi's creed teaches that a believer who commits a major sin may be punished in the Fire, but not forever.⁵⁵ The Mu'tazila held, and Ibadi teachers hold, that an unrepentant sinner's punishment is eternal.¹²¹³ The creed also teaches that the blessed will see God, while Ibadi and Shia teachers hold that God cannot be seen.⁵⁵¹³⁵⁶

Jesus stands at the center of Christian faith: Christians hold that he is the Son of God, who became human, was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and rose on the third day.⁵⁵⁷⁵⁸ Early figures include Peter, one of his original disciples; James, called the brother of Jesus, who seems to have led the Jerusalem group; and Paul, the missionary whose letters are part of the New Testament.²⁰⁵⁹⁶⁰ Catholic and Orthodox Christians hold Mary, Jesus's mother, in special honor, and Orthodox Christians call her the Theotokos, or Birthgiver of God.⁶¹⁶²

Muhammad is, in Muslim teaching, God's final prophet, to whom God revealed the Quran.⁶³⁶⁴ His wife Khadijah comforted him after the first revelation.²⁴ All Sunnis regard Abu Bakr as the first caliph, or successor.⁶⁵ Shia Muslims hold that Muhammad appointed his cousin and son-in-law Ali as his successor and first imam.⁶⁶¹⁰ They mourn the death of Ali's son Husayn at Karbala in 680 CE.⁶⁷ Ibadis hold that the community's leading men should choose its leader, and they name Jabir ibn Zayd as their first imam.⁶⁸¹⁴

Christians teach that a person should love God completely and love others as themselves, the two greatest commandments in Matthew's Gospel.¹⁵⁶⁹⁷⁰ They gather above all on Sunday, the day they hold Jesus rose.⁷¹⁷²⁷³ Catholic and Orthodox worship centers on the Eucharist, a meal Christians trace to Jesus's last supper.⁷⁴⁷⁵⁷⁶ Catholic teaching counts seven sacraments, while Reformed and Anglican confessions count two, baptism and the Lord's Supper.⁷⁷⁷³⁷⁸ Matthew and Luke record the Lord's Prayer as a prayer Jesus taught his followers.¹⁵ Catholic and Orthodox Christians also ask Mary and the saints to pray for them, while the Westminster Confession directs prayer to God alone.^79808173 Catholic teaching holds that Jesus declared all foods clean, and fasting seasons such as Lent carry rules about certain foods.⁸²⁸³⁸⁴ The Christian year turns on Easter and Christmas.⁷¹⁸⁵

Muslims teach that a person should worship God alone and follow the Sharia, the path God has laid down for all of life.⁸⁶ The Quran enjoins justice and kindness, and the 2007 letter A Common Word cites a saying of Muhammad that none has faith until he loves for his neighbor what he loves for himself.⁹⁸⁷ The Five Pillars are the declaration of faith, prayer five times a day, almsgiving called zakat, fasting in Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.⁸⁸⁸⁹ Muslims gather for congregational prayer on Fridays.⁸⁹ A Twelver Shia report in al-Kafi lists prayer, zakat, fasting, the pilgrimage, and wilayah, devotion to the imams.⁹⁰⁸⁹ Sufism, a mystical dimension found among Sunnis and Shias, has orders that practice dhikr, the remembrance of God.⁹¹⁴⁶⁹² Islamic law marks some foods as lawful, halal, and others as unlawful, haram.⁹³⁹⁴

The Catholic Catechism says the plan of salvation includes Muslims, who profess to hold the faith of Abraham and, together with Christians, adore the one, merciful God.⁹⁵ The Second Vatican Council adds that Muslims do not acknowledge Jesus as God but revere him as a prophet, and honor Mary.⁹⁶ It urges Christians and Muslims to work for mutual understanding.⁹⁶

The Orthodox document For the Life of the World (2020) finds points of contact with Islam, among them the Virgin Birth.⁹⁷ It says Orthodoxy cannot agree with Islam's rejection of the Incarnation and the Trinity.⁹⁷ An adult teaching manual of the Orthodox Church in America says Christians reject Muhammad as a true prophet and the Quran as the word of God.⁹⁸ It calls Islam a heresy for denying that Jesus is divine and died on the cross, and invites Muslims to renounce Islam for the Christian faith.⁹⁸ The same manual says atrocities against any non-Christians are immoral, sinful, and wrong.⁹⁸

The Lutheran Augsburg Confession rejects all heresies against its article on God in three persons, naming among others the Mohammedans, the translation's word for Muslims.⁴ A 1992 study document of the World Council of Churches, whose members include most Orthodox and many Protestant churches, says Islam challenges Christians over Muhammad's status as prophet and the Quran's as revelation.⁹⁹¹⁰⁰ The evangelical Cape Town Commitment of 2010 repents of failing to seek friendships with Muslims and others, and joins confidence in the uniqueness of Christ to respectful listening.¹⁰¹

The Quran calls Jews and Christians the People of the Scripture and says the nearest in affection to believers are those who say they are Christians.⁹⁹⁹ It invites them to worship none but God and ascribe no partner to him.⁹ It names Jesus the Messiah and a messenger of God, born to the virgin Mary, and says God revealed the Gospel as well as the Torah.¹⁰²⁹

It also tells them not to say that God is three, says that those who say he is the third of three disbelieve, and says that God has no son.⁹ Muslims hold that Jesus was not crucified but saved and raised by God.²²¹⁰³ Many Muslims hold that Christians altered their scripture.¹⁰³⁹⁹ The Quran presents itself as confirming the scripture before it.⁹ A 2018 paper published by the Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, by an anonymous guest contributor, says Muslims need not throw out the earlier scriptures even though the Quran and the sunnah have superseded them and corrected what had been lost or altered.¹⁰⁴

The scholars Ibn Hazm, al-Ghazali, and Ibn Taymiyya wrote against the Gospels, the divinity of Jesus, and the Trinity.¹⁰³ The Zaydi Shia scholar al-Qasim ibn Ibrahim (died 860 CE) was among the first Muslims to argue that Christians had misunderstood rather than altered their scriptures.¹⁰³ In 2007, 138 Muslim scholars and leaders, among them Shia ayatollahs and the Grand Mufti of Oman, wrote A Common Word, which invites Christians to common ground in love of God and neighbor.⁸⁷¹⁰⁵